Chemistry Report on Explosives

Chemistry Report on Explosives Chemistry Report on Explosives What is meant byoxidation and show how oxidation reactions are used to cause explosions. Oxidation is the term used for the combinationof a substance with oxygen, or in general any reaction where an atom ormolecule loses electrons. This can be shown as: C(s) + O2 (g)CO (g) S=solid, g=gas Gunpowderor black powder is the oldest explosive we know. It is made up of a mixture ofpotassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre or KNO3), charcoal, andsulfur in different proportions. When gunpowder is manufactured today, it ismade with the ratios 7.5:1.5:1 by mass (2). Bothgunpowder and dynamite have within them substances which are readily availableto oxidation. The oxygen which is used for the oxidation is an intrinsic partof the mixture, and is held within them in the same manner that oxygen isstored in the chemical potassium chlorate. Whengunpowder is ignited, this oxidation is extremely rapid, and a large volume ofgas is produced. The gasses are under extreme pressure, which causesthem to expand rapidly. Heat is produced causing the gas particles toaccelerate, creating even more pressure. If the gas expands faster than thespeed of sound, this creates a shockwave. The pressure produced by the gassesis what causes parts of the bomb (shrapnel) to be propelled far and wide atvery high speeds(1). Thespeed at which something oxidises is dependant on its potential to interactwith oxygen. The greater number of unstable electrons that a molecule or atomhas to lose, the quicker it will be oxidised (3). b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Give an account of thedevelopment of chemical compounds for use in explosives. Describe theadvantages of each new chemical explosive over its predecessors, and describehow the explosives were adapted to make them safer and more effective. (9marks) It is thought that the firstexplosive discovered was black powder, originating in 10th Century China. Itwas used for ceremonial fireworks. In Europe, 1242 saw the formula for blackpowder being published by Roger Bacon. The refinement of the substance closelyfollowed after the gun was invented by Berthold Schwartz in 1300. Around thistime, black powder was being used for removal of rocks, the teqnique was knownas fire setting, but this was replaced with blasting at the beginning of the17th Century. There are records of blasting in America from 1773 (4). The production of black powderwas rapidly increased during the American Revolution. By the turn of thecentury, the commercial production of the explosive had grown from 25 millionto 100 million (2). In 1846, Nitroglycerin wasdiscovered by Ascanio Sobrero. Nitroglycerin plasticizes collodion which is aform of nitrocellulose to form blasting gelatin. This is a very powerfulexplosive. The discovery of this action led to the advancement of ballistite, thefirst double-base propellant and a precursor of cordite. Alfred Nobel built a factory toproduce it in 1861 in Sweden. An advantage of nitroglycerin was its massiveexplosive power, but it was very difficult to transport as it is a liquid,which used black powder to ignite it. It could also freeze and had toxic fumeswhich caused severe headaches (5). In 1867, Nobel accidentallyinvented Dynamite and he went on to patent his mixture. It was a greatdiscovery, being more powerful than black powder, with a higher detonationvelocity which made it much more effective breaking rock as it not only moved,but broke apart the rock Ammonium nitrate was initially synthesizedin 1659 by J. R. Glauber by blending ammonium carbonate and nitric acid. It wasmostly used for fertilizer and blasting and to replace a portion ofnitroglycerin in dynamite (1). Dupont introduced Nitramon in1935. This was seen as a breakthrough. They had safe handling, were inexpensiveand did not cause health problems. It was known as ANFO (AmmoniumNitrate Fuel Oil) when it was developed in 1955. During its production itcaused a large Texas City explosion. It was easy to load and transport andcheaper than dynamite, it is not a Class A explosive until mixed, but itsaction could be decreased by water. Over 2.2 billion pounds of it were producedin 1974. Water gels were developed from researchto solve the water problem with ammonium nitrate products (early 1940s). Themarket was small though as most applications needed a small product and therewas no economical sensitizer was not available. c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Discuss, with reference to highand low explosives, the ideal features of an explosive reaction, explaining,with examples, how chemical reactions produce energy and how they causeincrease in pressure. (6 marks) There are three categories of explosives: high explosives,primary explosives and low explosives. Gunpowder is a low explosive so thereaction occurs slowly. Expanding gasses are used to propel, not destroy, suchas bullet propulsion from a gun (3). In high explosives, destruction is caused by the expandinggasses, and the extreme pressure causes a shockwave, if the gas expands morequickly than the speed of sound. The shockwave contributes to the demolitionpower of trinitrotoluene (TNT). Primary explosives are intended to explode not burn. Theyare used for fuses and blasting caps to initiate an explosion. Shockwaves are acrucial factor in explosions. It is a wave formed from a zone of enormously highpressure in a fluid, including the atmosphere that travels faster than the speedof sound. It moves from the point of the explosion carrying energy and has a severedamaging effect on solid objects it bounces off (5). In the chemical reaction of the explosion, compounds are brokendown to form various gases. The original chemical compounds (reactants) have muchenergy stored up as chemical bonds between atoms.When molecules break apart, the products (gases) may use some of this energy toform new bonds. Most leftover energy takes the form of extremeheat. d) Describehow UK methods of manufacture of propanone have changed since the beginning ofthe First World War. (3 marks) Propanone isalso known as Acetone, 2-propanone, methyl ketone and dimethyl ketone. It hasthe chemical formula: (CH3)2C=O. Prior to theFirst World War, it was manufactured by hydration of propene from crackedgases. This was revolutionized during WW1 when the chemist Chaim Weizmann showed that propanone could beproduced by the bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum, this was acontinuation of the studies originally performed by Louis Pasteur showingfermentation was promoted by microbes in the 19th century (2). e) Discuss how attitudes to health and safety in chemicalresearch and industrial chemistry have changed over time. Use examples from thehistory of the development and manufacture of explosives and medicines.(4marks) In modern times, we have a numberof health and safety legislations which govern the manufacturing and use ofexplosives for their various purposes. One example is the 1996 USA Departmentof Commerce directive on the manufacturing of fireworks and explosives (6).There are now very tight regulations ensuring that everyone working in thesector is protected as far as possible. It is also accepted that the companiesinvolved have responsibility to protect their workers from harm and mustprovide safety equipment (3). Historically there have been huge numbers of accidentsduring explosive production. At one gunpowder mill in the early 19thcentury, situated in Roslin, Scotland, explosions killed two men shortly afterthe mill opened in 1805 and three more were killed by 1815. Many more followed.Deaths caused during the manufacturing process would have numbered greatly asthis was just from one of the thousands of mills worldwide during a shortperiod. Old attitudes focused on worker responsibility, were nowresponsibility should be shouldered by the company also. Conclusion Explosions are due to combustionwhich involves the use of the oxidation process. Depending on how available thesubstance is to interact with oxygen will depend on how quickly it is oxidised.The more quickly it is oxidised, the more quickly the gases will expand and themore devastating the explosion will be. References Chang, Raymond, General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts 4th Edition 2004 Kotz, John C., Paul M. Treichel, and Gabriela Weaver Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity 6th Edition 2003 Spencer, James N., George M. Bodner and Lyman H. Rickard Chemistry: Structure and Dynamics 3rd Edition 1999 Infelta, Pierre Introductory Thermodynamics 1st Edition 2005 Smith, E. Brian Basic Chemical Thermodynamics 5thEdition 2004 USA Department Commerce, 009, Manufacture of Fireworks June 2002

Prejudice and Discrimination Essay

Traveling had always been something I looked forward to. Seeing other parts of the world, visiting other countries; just the idea of it brought more joy then most things would. Sadly though, that is not the experience that I encountered while travelling to South Africa. Even though it was their native land, the locals in South Africa faced an overwhelming amount of discrimination; it was completely heart breaking to witness. Taking into the history of South Africa, with the concept that â€Å"blacks [are] inferior to whites†, (MALEMA, 2010, para. or in other words; the apartheid, where black people were simply less than white, and that was the acceptable way of life, it is not terribly hard to imagine that some discrimination still lives in South Africa today. With the apartheid not officially in existence at this current time, most people would, and do assume that the discrimination had come to an end and all people of every race and ethnicity live in peace with each other in South Africa, but as it is; old habits are hard to break. White people are still treating black people as though they were not really people and black people are subjected to the upper hand that the white members of society have had for years upon years without having much, if any power to change it. The apartheid does have a National party, people still do believe in it who live in South Africa, and while those who stand up for the truth of the matter protest and stand in opposition to it, the apartheid and the people that support it end up on top; for now. With South Africa going officially and publically to a democratic system and abandoning the incorrect and discriminatory ways of the apartheid, hope reenters the scene for Black Americans. During the time of the apartheid, â€Å"the ruling National Party’s goal was to secure White control and promote racial separation by classifying all South Africans into White, Black, Colored (i. e. , those of mixed race), or Asian ethnic categories† (Kon ZR, 1998, para. ). Within South Africa, while under the apartheid the only race that existed was White Africans. All other Africans, whether Black or Asian, was looked upon as not being a race, they were less than human, there only to serve White Africans. While the ethnicities of at least the locals in South Africa are the same, the race does differ from town to town. The natives born in South Africa all share the same background giving them the same culture in a sense, yet under the apartheid the difference in race between White and everyone else made all of the difference in the world. The new turn to the democratic system is anything but segregation of the races. Much like in my own homeland of North America, more specifically, The United States of America, where democracy is an everyday occurrence, South Africa’s goal of democracy will involve a turning point to some sort of equality between white Americans and all other races in South Africa besides the white community. However, much like in America, South Africa will tumble and stumble for years with this turning point. It already has been years since the South Africa Country has turned democratic, and still today, there lies in the towns much racism and discrimination. To spare the cruelty of how extreme the discrimination in South Africa got, a much calmer example is when I went to the local store that was owned by White Africans who still lived by the ruling of the apartheid. I saw a Black couple walk into the store, shop around, and when it was time to leave, the owner refused to talk to them or serve them. The all the couple needed was milk and diapers for their newborn, but the cashier, who was White, looked right through them. A white woman pushed her way past the Black couple and was waited on promptly by the cashier, and as the Black couple got the hint, they placed the items back, and walked away. The saddest part though, is after they left, I saw the cashier grab some gloves, go over to the items that the couple had touched and discarded them in the trash. Discrimination is a crime, and it sadly still exists in society today; most likely because some White people still believe that all other races were created inferior to them and are solely there to serve as salves, but obviously, that is not the truth, and though South Africa made the correct change to democracy to amend that false assumption, that preconceived notion still lives on today. Sadly, it is found true, not in the papers, studies, statistics, or facts; that the law, no matter how much it might point toward and push to equality falls oh so short so often. The truth of this falling is found on the streets, in the towns, in schools, and between neighbors. It is seen in the grocery store, on the sidewalks, and through the windows. Regardless of the National party South Africa, the local parties South Africa (the locals) do not always agree with the change in place, and still treat everyone that is ot white as though they were not even human. A law does not change a person’s heart. The law may change the actions of a person, for fear of the consequence to the actual law, but the hardness that lives in the hearts of the white communities in South Africa have had years and years to build up and linger. Changing the political system is a start, and indeed, is a help; but it is not the answer. What is the answer? I have some ideas, but surely, there is no cove r all answer that will magically fix discrimination. The first eye glance that I saw while I was in South Africa made me realize that one of the best things to do for them in order to climb the ladder to equality is to point out to them that the hardness in their hearts are still there; that while they might have changed what is written on paper, the things that are engraved on their hearts are still there, and firmer than ever. The second thing that I know all Americans, not just this one person, can do is to be an example. In North America, we have faced racism, discrimination, inequality of men and women; in short, we have faced and overcome the things that South Africa faces today. And while I recognize them as an independent country, as North America is one of the largest and strongest countries, we should also be the best. We, as a country should stand up and stop the discrimination that happens on our streets, in our schools, and at work. We have no right to scold South Africa of their discrimination until or unless we have settled our own issues of discrimination. And even then, a scolding is not what is necessary. What is needed is an understanding, and assistance; we need to set an example. I know that I am just one reporter writing one article, and I am sure readers are wondering why I am speaking so passionately about this subject, or what I expect out of the readers in all honesty. I know that this is not a regular article that the newspaper readers are used to, but I also know that this is a great way to speak, not only of the negativity of discrimination and how bad it is or how bad it is getting. This chance is also a chance to show that some people care more about how to change it from getting bad to getting better. That though one person cannot change the world, one small deed can do great things, and the more people that take that initiative, the more great things will happen. I would sincerely encourage anyone that could, to visit South Africa. Brace yourselves if you do, the discrimination really is horrible, people that are not white still, have little chances of making much of themselves, and the AIDS that are in the country is as common as the America cold, but the truth is within the people. Black Americans in South Africa have the hope, they just need the help. If you cannot make it to visit, send a letter, make a wish, sit back, if only for a moment, and give them a second of your time to think about them; where they are, where they have been, and where they could go. Discrimination not only affects those who are being discriminated against, but also those who miss out on the opportunity to know, work with, and live around all the other races. They all miss out on the unifying truth that everyone is a person; their own individual humanistic self that has so much more to offer than the color of their skin.

Essay on The American Dream in Of Mice and Men by John...

The novel, Of Mice and Men written by John Steinbeck refers back to The American Dream as heaven. Steinbeck is trying to point out that the American Dream is unrealistic. This novel looks back at the dreams of American individuals in the 1930s. It is set in California at the time of the Great Depression during which the American stock market collapsed leaving the nation in a state of economical disarray. The disease, hunger and poverty in England were high during this period. Landowners were very wealthy but the rest of the people had to struggle and work very hard for survival. Not only did they have to feed themselves but they also had to pay off the heavy taxes, which went to the†¦show more content†¦The Americans preferred to be controlled by a Government instead of being a colony that belonged to the English so they fought for their independence. The war ended in 1776. The English lost and America became an independent nation. Being a good leader during the War of Independence, George Washington was voted to be the first president. He didnt believe a king or queen should rule America. He proposed that the American citizens should govern the nation. People soon agreed with him. The Declaration of Independence was a document that included a promise from the Government to all Americans. Firstly it declares that all men are created equal. Steinbeck uses this novel to question this rule so he writes about Crooks situation to express the reality. Crooks is a Negro stable buck. Being a black American, he has to face the racism. Hes treated very badly because of he colour. No one takes any notice of him. Curleys wife refers to him as the weak one. It says America is to be ruled by a Government so that the citizens would get a say but this novel points out that in reality the individuals have very little power to share their feelings and emotions. They were trapped in the life of work, just like the horses trapped in the halter chains.Show MoreRelatedThe American Dream in Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck712 Words   |  3 PagesThe American Dream in Of Mice and Men The American dream is the traditional social ideals of the US, such as equality, democracy, and material prosperity. In the Novella Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck the American Dream plays a huge role in almost every character’s lives, and the different version of the American dream for each individual has affected both their lives and the outcome of this novella. The American dream plays a role that makes each character more hard working and perseveredRead MoreMotivation for the American Dream in Of Mice and Men, by John Steinbeck783 Words   |  4 Pagesnot trying it achieve something. Motivation can be applied to the American Dream. 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Approaches to Nursing Research Essay Writing

Sometime nursing as a discipline is treated somewhat condescendingly – people tend to perceive its theoretical part as a formality greatly overshadowed by practice. It is, however, very far from truth, as anybody, who actually studies it, knows. A nursing essay writing must meet rigid requirements, probably more rigid than a lot of other essay types. On the one hand, it presupposes a solid practical basis; on the other hand, it should be a piece of genuine research, with trustworthy and relevant sources, correct citation and so on. If you think that it is an easy thing to pull off – you are very mistaken, and here are some reasons why. Problems with Writing a Nursing Essay First and foremost, it is sources of information. Nursing requires a lot of highly specialized texts which are often not all that easy to come by, especially if you need them at short notice. The Internet may not be enough – although you may get some hints as to which books you need and where you can get them, at the end of the day you may still need to go to a library or even a buy a book or ten. If you are used to get most of your information from Wikipedia – forget about it. For writing a research essay you need to tap into much less general knowledge than Wikipedia provides. There is, however, one use for it – in notes you will generally find a lot of references to books, magazine publications, online articles and other sources that may turn out to be useful for you. Some of the links may be dead, but at least you will be able to get the book titles, so it will be easier to find them offline if necessary. Tips on Writing a Nursing Research Essay If you have problems starting you essay, try to overcome your psychological inertia first. Usually students leave it for later, but you may actually start with preparing the formatting of your paper – most nursing programs use APA format, so it is probably what you need as well. But to be on the safe side don’t forget to consult your tutor. Prepare the title page, the margins and everything else, following one of the numerous online guides to APA formatting. After that, prepare your sources. A good way not only to find sources but also read fragments from them is Google Books Search – there you can find innumerable useful texts and read excerpts from them, completely free of charge. If your research essay isn’t a big one, it may be even enough to complete it. However, no matter how good it is, expect to make at least a couple of trips to good old libraries – many of them have electronic catalogues, so you will probably not spend a lot of time there. Nevertheless, plan accordingly – it won’t do if you discover that you lack a couple of vital sources the day before you are supposed to submit your paper.